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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Visual memory</span></span>

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<p><b>Visual memory</b> describes the relationship between perceptual processing and the <a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">encoding</a>, <a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">storage</a> and <a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">retrieval</a> of the resulting neural representations. Visual memory occurs over a broad time range spanning from eye movements to years in order to visually navigate to a previously visited location.<sup id="cite_ref-M1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. We are able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual memory is also referred to as the <a href="Mind's_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind's eye">mind's eye</a> through which we can retrieve from our memory a mental image of original objects, places, animals or people.<sup id="cite_ref-M1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visual memory is one of several cognitive systems, which are all interconnected parts that combine to form the human memory.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Types of <a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">palinopsia</a>, the persistence or recurrence of a visual image after the <a href="Stimulus_(psychology)" title="Stimulus (psychology)">stimulus</a> has been removed, is a dysfunction of visual memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Gersztenkorn_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gersztenkorn-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</h2></div>

<p>In humans, areas specialized for <a href="Cognitive_neuroscience_of_visual_object_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition">visual object recognition</a> in the <a href="Two_Streams_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Streams hypothesis">ventral stream</a> have a more inferior location in the <a href="Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal cortex</a>, whereas areas specialized for the visual-spatial location of objects in the <a href="Two_Streams_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Streams hypothesis">dorsal stream</a> have a more superior location in the <a href="Parietal_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal cortex">parietal cortex</a>. However, these two streams hypothesis, although useful, are a simplification of the visual system because the two streams maintain intercommunication along their entire rostral course.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Posterior_parietal_cortex">Posterior parietal cortex</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Posterior_parietal_cortex" title="Posterior parietal cortex">posterior parietal cortex</a> is a portion of the <a href="Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a>, which manipulates mental images, and integrates sensory and motor portions of the brain.

</p><p>A majority of experiments highlights a role of human posterior parietal cortex in visual <a href="Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a> and attention. We therefore have to establish a clear separation of visual memory and attention from processes related to the planning of goal-directed motor behaviors.

</p><p>We can only hold in mind a minute fraction of the visual scene. These mental representations are stored in visual short-term memory.<sup id="cite_ref-M3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Activity in the posterior parietal cortex is tightly correlated with the limited amount of scene information that can be stored in visual short-term memory.<sup id="cite_ref-M3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These results suggest that the posterior parietal cortex is a key neural locus of our impoverished mental representation of the visual world.<sup id="cite_ref-M3_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Posterior_cortex" title="Posterior cortex">posterior cortex</a> might act as a capacity-limited store for the representation of the visual scene, the frontal/prefrontal cortex might be necessary for the <a href="Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">consolidation</a> and/or maintenance of this store, especially during extended retention intervals.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_cortex">Visual cortex</h3></div>

<p>There is a <a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a> in each <a href="Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">hemisphere</a> of the brain, much of which is located in the <a href="Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">Occipital lobe</a>. The left hemisphere visual cortex receives signals mainly from the right visual field and the right visual cortex mainly from the left visual field, although each cortex receives a considerable amount of information from the ipsilateral visual field as well. The visual cortex also receives information from subcortical regions, such as the <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate body</a>, located in the thalamus. However, ample evidence indicates that object identity and location are preferentially processed in ventral (occipito-temporal) and dorsal (occipito-parietal) cortical visual streams, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-M3_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Comparison of <a href="Molecular_imaging#Single_photon_emission_computed_tomography_(SPECT)" title="Molecular imaging">rCBF</a> during performance of the two tasks again revealed differences between the ventral and dorsal pathways.<sup id="cite_ref-M3_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dorsal_stream_pathway">Dorsal stream pathway</h4></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Dorsal_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal stream">Dorsal stream</a></div>

<p>The dorsal stream pathway is mainly involved in the visual-spatial location of objects in the external world, and it is also known colloquially as the 'where' pathway. The dorsal stream pathway is also involved in the guidance of movements (e.g., reaching for an object in space), and is therefore implicated in the analysis of the movement of objects in addition to their spatial locations.

</p><p>The dorsal stream pathway begins with purely visual information in the occipital lobe, and then this information is transferred to the parietal lobe for spatial awareness functions. Specifically, the posterior parietal cortex is essential for "the perception and interpretation of spatial relationships, accurate body image, and the learning of tasks involving coordination of the body in space."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ventral_stream_pathway">Ventral stream pathway</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ventral_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral stream">Ventral stream</a></div>

<p>The ventral stream pathway is mainly involved in object recognition, and is known colloquially as the 'what' pathway. It has connections to the medial temporal lobe (which is involved in the storage of long-term memories), the <a href="Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a> (which regulates emotions), and the dorsal stream pathway (which is involved in the visual-spatial locations and motions of objects). Therefore, the ventral stream pathway not only deals with the recognition of objects in the external world, but also the emotional judgement and analysis of these objects.

</p><p>The ventral stream pathway begins with purely visual information in the primary visual cortex (occipital lobe), and then this information is transferred to the temporal lobe.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occipital_lobes">Occipital lobes</h3></div>

<p>Located at the back of the brain, the <a href="Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobes</a> receive and process visual information. The occipital lobes also process colors and shapes. Whereas the right occipital lobe interprets images from the left visual space, the left occipital lobe interprets images from the right visual space. Damage to the occipital lobes can permanently damage visual perception<sup id="cite_ref-Mar_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mar-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Occipital_lobe_injury_complications">Occipital lobe injury complications</h4></div>

<p>Damage to the occipital lobe is characterized by loss of visual capability and the inability to identify colors both important processes in visual memory.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Short_term_visual_memory">Short term visual memory</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Visual_short-term_memory" title="Visual short-term memory">Visual short-term memory</a></div>

<p>Visual short term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of visual information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time (usually no more than 30 seconds). Although visual short term memory is essential for the execution of a wide array of perceptual and cognitive functions, and is supported by an extensive network of brain regions, its storage capacity is severely limited.<sup id="cite_ref-M3_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Visual short-term memory storage is mediated by distinctive posterior brain mechanisms, such that capacity is determined both by a fixed number of objects and by object complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-M3_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long_term_visual_memory">Long term visual memory</h3></div>

<p>Recall of the patterns from long term visual memory is associated with <a href="Molecular_imaging#Single_photon_emission_computed_tomography_(SPECT)" title="Molecular imaging">rCBF</a> increases in different areas of the <a href="Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> and the <a href="Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-M3_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The retrieval of long term visual memories is associated with activation of both anterior and posterior temporal cortices. Posterior temporal cortical regions are more associated with retrieval of category-specific aspects of visual memory, whereas anterior regions of the temporal cortex are more associated with category-independent visual memory.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_study">Methods of study</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benton_visual_retention_test">Benton visual retention test</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Benton_Visual_Retention_Test" title="Benton Visual Retention Test">Benton Visual Retention Test</a> is an assessment of <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a>, and visual memory <a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">abilities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 50 years of proven clinical use is the staple of the Benton Visual Retention Test.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This test has proven its <a href="Sensitivity_and_specificity" title="Sensitivity and specificity">sensitivity</a> to <a href="Reading_disability" title="Reading disability">reading disabilities</a>, <a href="Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">nonverbal learning disabilities</a>, <a href="Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a>, <a href="Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention-deficit disorder</a>, <a href="Alzheimer's_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">alzheimer's</a>, and other forms of <a href="Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During testing participants are presented with 10 cards for 10 seconds with unique designs on each.<sup id="cite_ref-BVRT_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BVRT-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the time has passed participants are asked to immediately reproduce the designs from each card using their visual memory.<sup id="cite_ref-BVRT_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BVRT-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the second stage participants are asked to copy each of the 10 card designs while the cards are in view.<sup id="cite_ref-BVRT_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BVRT-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The participants results from each task are then assessed and placed into six categories; omissions, <a href="Distortion" title="Distortion">distortions</a>, preservations, <a href="Rotation" title="Rotation">rotations</a>, misplacements, and sizing errors.<sup id="cite_ref-BVRT_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BVRT-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The further the participant's <a href="Test_score" title="Test score">scores</a> varies from the averages provided in the Benton Visual Retention Test manual the worse the participant is assessed to be on visual memory ability.<sup id="cite_ref-BVRT_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BVRT-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Benton Visual Retention Test has proved to be a generalizable test with the ability to be accurately administered to participants aged 8-adult,<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and no gender effect.<sup id="cite_ref-BVRT_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BVRT-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies have suggested a significant <a href="Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> and <a href="Education" title="Education">education</a> <a href="Interaction_(statistics)" title="Interaction (statistics)">interaction</a> indicating that an age-associated decline in visual memory performance may be more prominent for those individuals with a lower <a href="Education" title="Education">education</a> level.<sup id="cite_ref-BVRT_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BVRT-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroimaging_tests">Neuroimaging tests</h3></div>

<p><a href="Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a> studies focus on the <a href="Neural_network" title="Neural network">neural networks</a> involved in visual <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> using methods designed to activate brain areas involved in <a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">encoding</a>, <a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">storage</a>, and <a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">recall</a>. These studies involve the use of one or multiple types of <a href="Neuroimaging#Brain_imaging_techniques" title="Neuroimaging">brain imaging techniques</a> designed to measure timing or activation within the brain. The data collected from neuroimaging studies gives researchers the ability to visualize which brain regions are activated in specific cognitive visual memory tasks. With the use of brain imaging devices researchers able to further investigate memory performance above and beyond standard tests based on exact response times, and activation.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Control_condition">Control condition</h4></div>

<p>The subject's resting brain activation level is first determined in order to form a control or 'baseline' to measure from.<sup id="cite_ref-PET_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PET-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subjects are blindfolded and instructed to lay motionless while simultaneously eliminating any visual imagery present in their <a href="Mind's_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind's eye">mind's eye</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PET_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PET-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These instructions are intended to minimize the activation of brain regions involved in visual memory to form a true resting brain state.<sup id="cite_ref-PET_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PET-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the scan is complete a control has been formed which can be compared with activated regions of the brain while performing visual memory tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-PET_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PET-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Activation_condition">Activation condition</h4></div>

<p>During encoding, participants are typically exposed to 1–10 visual patterns while connected to a brain imaging device.<sup id="cite_ref-PET2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PET2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the subject encodes the visual patterns researchers are able to directly view the activation of areas involved in visual memory encoding.<sup id="cite_ref-PET_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PET-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During recall subjects again need to have all visual stimuli removed by means of a dark room or blindfolding to avoid interfering activation of other visual areas in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-PET_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PET-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subjects are asked to recall each image clearly in their mind's eye. While recalling the images researchers are able view the areas activated by the visual memory task. Comparing the control 'baseline' state to the activated areas during the visual memory task allows researchers to view which areas are used during visual memory.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_theories">Current theories</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visuo-spatial_sketch_pad">Visuo-spatial sketch pad</h3></div>

<p>The visuo-spatial sketchpad is part of <a href="Baddeley's_model_of_working_memory" title="Baddeley's model of working memory">Baddeley and Hitch's model</a> of <a href="Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a>. It is responsible for temporarily storing <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual</a> and spatial information, which is currently being used or <a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">encoded</a>. It is thought of as a three-dimensional <a href="Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive map</a>, which contains spatial features about where the person is and visual images of the area, or an object being <a href="Flow_(psychology)" title="Flow (psychology)">concentrated</a> on.<sup id="cite_ref-mental_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mental-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is used in tasks such as <a href="Mental_image" title="Mental image">mental image</a> manipulation where a person <a href="Imagination" title="Imagination">imagines</a> how a real object would look if it were changed in some way (rotated, flipped, moved, change of colour, etc.). It is also responsible for representing how vivid an image is. A vivid image is one which you have a high potential for <a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">retrieving</a> its sensory details. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is responsible for holding onto the visual and spatial qualities of a vivid image in your working memory, and the degree of vividness is directly affected by the limits of the sketchpad.<sup id="cite_ref-Memory2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memory2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eidetic_and_photographic_memories">Eidetic and photographic memories</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic memory</a></div>

<p>Eidetic memory is an ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with high precision for a few minutes without using mnemonics. It occurs in a small number of children and generally is not found in adults.<sup id="cite_ref-Slate_2006_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slate_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The popular culture concept of photographic memory—where, for example, someone can briefly look at a page of text and then recite it perfectly from memory—is not the same as seeing eidetic images, and photographic memory has never been demonstrated to exist.<sup id="cite_ref-Slate_2006_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slate_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iconic_memory">Iconic memory</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic memory</a></div>

<p><a href="Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic memory</a> is the <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual</a> part of the sensory <a href="Memory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory system">memory system</a>. <a href="Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic memory</a> is responsible for <a href="Priming_(psychology)#Perceptual_and_conceptual_priming" title="Priming (psychology)">visual priming</a>, because it works very quickly and <a href="Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconsciously</a>. Iconic memory <a href="Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">decays</a> very quickly, but contains a very vivid image of the surrounding stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-Memory1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memory1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spatial_memory">Spatial memory</h3></div>

<p><a href="Spatial_memory" title="Spatial memory">Spatial memory</a> is a person's knowledge of the space around them, and their whereabouts in it. It also encompasses all memories of areas and places, and how to get to and from them. Spatial memory is distinct from object memory and involves different parts of the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. Spatial memory involves the dorsal parts of the brain and more specifically the <a href="Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>. However, both types of memory are often used together, such as when trying to remember where you put a lost object. A classic test of spatial memory is the <a href="Methods_used_to_study_memory#Corsi_block_tapping" title="Methods used to study memory">Corsi block-tapping task</a>, where an instructor taps a series of blocks in a <a href="Randomness" title="Randomness">random order</a> and the participant attempts to <a href="Imitation" title="Imitation">imitate</a> them. The number of blocks they can tap before performance breaks down on <a href="Average" title="Average">average</a> is called their Corsi span. Spatial memory is always being used whenever a person is moving any part of their body; therefore it is generally more <a href="Vulnerability" title="Vulnerability">vulnerable</a> to <a href="Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">decay</a> than object memory is.<sup id="cite_ref-Memory2_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memory2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Object_memory">Object memory</h3></div>

<p>Object memory involves <a href="Cognitive_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive process">processing</a> features of an object or material such as <a href="Texture_(visual_arts)" title="Texture (visual arts)">texture</a>, color, size, and <a href="Orientation_(geometry)" title="Orientation (geometry)">orientation</a>. It is processed mainly in the <a href="List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">ventral regions</a> of the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. A few studies have shown that on average most people can recall up to four items each with a set of four different <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual</a> qualities. It is a separate system from <a href="Spatial_memory" title="Spatial memory">spatial memory</a> and is not affected by <a href="Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">interference</a> from spatial tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-BaddeleyEysenck2014_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BaddeleyEysenck2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accuracy">Accuracy</h2></div>

<p>Visual memory is not always accurate and can be misled by outside conditions. This can be seen in studies carried out by <a href="Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a> and Gary Wells. In one study by Wells, individuals were exposed to misleading information after witnessing an event; they were then tested on their ability to remember details from this event. Their findings included: when given misinformation that contradicts the witnessed event they were less able to recall those details; and whether misinformation was given before or after the witnessed event did not seem to matter.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, visual memory can be subjected to various <a href="Memory_errors" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory errors">memory errors</a> which will affect accuracy.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visual_memory_in_education">Visual memory in education</h2></div>

<p>"We do not store and retrieve words based on visual memory." "Our phonological filing system is the basis for word memory/word recognition." -Dr. Kilpatrick (Equipped for Reading Success).

</p><p>Visual memory, in an <a href="Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academic</a> environment, entails work with pictures, symbols, numbers, letters, and especially words. Students must be able to look at a word, form an image of that word in their minds and be able to recall the appearance of the word later. When teachers introduce a new vocabulary word, generally they write it on the <a href="Chalkboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalkboard">chalkboard</a>, have the children spell it, read it and then use it in a sentence. The word is then erased from the chalkboard. Students with good visual memory will recognize that same word later in their readers or other texts and will be able to recall the appearance of the word to spell it.<sup id="cite_ref-Marr_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marr-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Child" title="Child">Children</a> who have not developed their visual memory skills cannot readily reproduce a sequence of visual stimuli. They frequently experience difficulty in remembering the overall visual appearance of words or the letter sequence of words for reading and spelling.<sup id="cite_ref-Marr_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marr-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factors_affecting_visual_memory">Factors affecting visual memory</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sleep">Sleep</h3></div>

<p>Findings surrounding sleep and visual memory have been mixed. Studies have reported performance increases after a bout of sleep compared with the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace.<sup id="cite_ref-CAI_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAI-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day.<sup id="cite_ref-CAI_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAI-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reactivation in sleep was only observed after extensive training of rodents on familiar tasks. It rapidly dissipates; it also makes up a small proportion of total recorded activity in sleep.<sup id="cite_ref-CAI_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAI-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

It has also been found that there are gender differences between males and females in regards to visual memory and sleep. In a study done testing sleep and memory for pictures it was found that daytime sleep contributed to retention of source memory rather than item memory in females, females did not have recollection or familiarity influenced by daytime sleep, whereas males undergoing daytime sleep had a trend towards increased familiarity.<sup id="cite_ref-XB_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XB-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reasons for this may be linked to different memory traces resulting from different encoding strategies, as well as with different electrophysiological changes during daytime sleep.<sup id="cite_ref-XB_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XB-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain_damage">Brain damage</h3></div>

<p><a href="Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">Brain damage</a> is another factor that has been found to have an effect on visual memory. Memory impairment affects both novel and familiar experiences. Poor memory after damage to the brain is usually considered to result from information being lost or rendered inaccessible.<sup id="cite_ref-BUSSEY_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BUSSEY-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With such impairment it is assumed that it must be due to the incorrect interpretation of previously encountered information as being novel.<sup id="cite_ref-BUSSEY_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BUSSEY-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In experiments testing rats' object recognition memory it was found that memory impairment can be the opposite, that there was a tendency to treat novel experiences as familiar. A possible solution for this impairment could be the use of a visual-restriction procedure that reduces interference.<sup id="cite_ref-BUSSEY_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BUSSEY-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Studies have shown that with <a href="Aging" class="mw-redirect" title="Aging">aging</a>, in terms of short-term visual memory, viewing time and task complexity affect performance. When there is a delay or when the task is complex recall declines.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study conducted to measure whether visual memory in older adults with age-related visual decline was caused by memory performance or visual functioning, the following were examined: relationships among age, visual activity, and visual and <a href="Verbal_memory" title="Verbal memory">verbal memory</a> in 89 community dwelling volunteers aged 60–87 years. The findings were that the effect of vision was not specific to visual memory.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, vision was found to be correlated with general memory function in older adults and is not modality specific.

</p><p>As we age performance in regards to spatial configurations deteriorates. In a task to store and combine two different spatial configurations to form a novel one young people out-performed the elderly.<sup id="cite_ref-BHATT_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BHATT-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vision also has an effect on performance. Sighted participants outperformed the visually impaired regardless of testing modality. This suggests that vision tends to shape the general supramodal mechanisms of memory.<sup id="cite_ref-BHATT_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BHATT-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcohol">Alcohol</h3></div>

<p>Studies have shown that there is an <a href="Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">effect of alcohol</a> on visual memory. In a recent study visual working memory and its neutral correlates was assessed in university students who partake in <a href="Binge_drinking" title="Binge drinking">binge drinking</a>, the intermittent consumption of large amounts of alcohol.<sup id="cite_ref-REDUCED_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-REDUCED-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The findings revealed that there may be binge-drinking related functional alteration in recognition working memory processes. This suggests that impaired <a href="Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> function may occur at an early age in binge drinkers.

</p><p>Another study conducted in 2004<sup id="cite_ref-BURKE_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BURKE-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> examined the level of response to alcohol and brain response during visual working memory. This study looked at the neural correlated of the low level of response to alcohol using <a href="Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> during a challenging visual memory task. The results were that young people who report having needed more alcohol to feel the effects showed higher levels of brain response during visual working memory, this suggests that the individual's capacity to adjust to cognitive processing decreases, they are less able to adjust cognitive processing to contextual demands.<sup id="cite_ref-BURKE_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BURKE-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dysfunction_of_visual_memory">Dysfunction of visual memory</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a> and <a href="Hallucinatory_palinopsia" title="Hallucinatory palinopsia">Hallucinatory palinopsia</a></div>

<p>Hallucinatory palinopsia, which is a dysfunction of visual memory, is caused by <a href="Visual_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual pathway">posterior visual pathway</a> cortical lesions and <a href="Seizure" title="Seizure">seizures</a>, most commonly in the non-dominant parietal lobe. Focal hyperactivity causes persistent activation of a visual cortex-hippocampal neuronal circuit which encodes an object or scene that is already in visual memory. "All of the hallucinatory palinopsia symptoms occur concomitantly in a patient with one lesion, which supports current evidence that objects, features, and scenes are all units of visual memory, perhaps at different levels of processing. This alludes to neuroanatomical integration in visual memory creation and storage."<sup id="cite_ref-Gersztenkorn_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gersztenkorn-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studying the excitability alterations associated with palinopsia in migraineurs could provide insight on mechanisms of encoding visual memory.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>One common group of people that have visual memory problems are children with <a href="Reading_disability" title="Reading disability">reading disabilities</a>. It was often thought that disabilities are caused by failure to perceive the <a href="Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> of a written word in the right order. However, studies show it is more likely that it is caused by a failure to <a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">encode</a> and process the correct order of letters within the word.<sup id="cite_ref-Catts_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catts-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that the child perceives the word just as anyone else would, however their brains do not appear to hold onto the visual characteristics of the word. Although initially it was found that children with reading disabilities had comparable visual memory to those without difficulty, a more specific part of the visual memory system has been found to cause reading disabilities.

</p><p>These parts are the sustained and transient <a href="Visual_processing" title="Visual processing">visual processing</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Catts_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catts-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sustained system is responsible for fine detail such as word and letter recognition and is very important in <a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">encoding</a> words in their correct order. The transient system is responsible for controlling <a href="Eye_movement_(sensory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye movement (sensory)">eye movements</a>, and processing the larger visual environment around us. When these two processes do not work in <a href="Synchronization" title="Synchronization">synchronization</a> this can cause <a href="Reading_disability" title="Reading disability">reading disabilities</a>. This has been tested by having children with and without reading disabilities perform on tasks related to the transient systems, where the children with reading disabilities did very poorly. It has also been found in <a href="Autopsy" title="Autopsy">postmortem examinations</a> of the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brains</a> of people with reading disabilities that they have fewer <a href="Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> and connections in the areas representing the transient visual systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Catts_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catts-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is debate over whether this is the only reason for reading disabilities, <a href="Scotopic_sensitivity_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Scotopic sensitivity syndrome">scotopic sensitivity syndrome</a>, deficits in verbal memory and orthographic knowledge are other proposed factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Catts_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catts-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Deficits in visual memory can also be caused by <a href="Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> and/or <a href="Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">trauma to the brain</a>. These can lead to the patient losing their <a href="Spatial_memory" title="Spatial memory">spatial memory</a>, and/or their visual memory for specific things. For example, a patient “L.E.” suffered <a href="Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">brain damage</a> and her ability to draw from memory was severely diminished, whilst her spatial memory remained normal. Other patients represent the opposite, where memory for colors and shapes is unaffected but spatial memory for previously known places is greatly impaired.<sup id="cite_ref-Mem_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mem-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These case studies show that these two types of visual memory are located in different parts of the brain and are somewhat unrelated in terms of functioning in daily life.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Catts-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Catts_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Catts_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Catts_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Catts_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCattsKamhi2005" class="citation book cs1">Catts, Hugh William; Kamhi, Alan G. (2005). <i>Language and Reading Disabilities</i>. Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. pp. <span class="nowrap">102–</span>106. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-205-44417-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Mem-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mem_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonBaddeleyYoung1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, B. A.; Baddeley, A. D.; Young, A. W. (1999). "LE, A person who lost her 'mind's eye'". <i>Neurocase</i>. <b>5</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">119–</span>127. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fneucas%2F5.2.119">10.1093/neucas/5.2.119</a> (inactive 1 July 2025).</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)</span></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanbenchmark.com/tests/memory">Visual Memory Test</a> – Measuring Visual Memory on the Web</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kids-iq-tests.com/BRVRT.html">Benton Visual Retention Test (BRVRT)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/BVRT.html">CPS Testing Library – Benton Visual Retention Test</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100825101701/http://cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/BVRT.html">Archived</a> 2010-08-25 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Psychology908" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Portal</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic <br>psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li>

<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied <br>psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_psychology" title="Aviation psychology">Aviation</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychobiography" title="Psychobiography">Biography of famous people</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li>

<li><a href="Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of color">Color</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion_psychology" title="Fashion psychology">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychohistory" title="Psychohistory">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li>

<li><a href="Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li>

<li><a href="Peace_psychology" title="Peace psychology">Peace and war</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li>

<li><a href="Photo_psychology" title="Photo psychology">Photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="School_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychology">School</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Stock_trader" title="Stock trader">Trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li>

<li><a href="Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li>

<li><a href="Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental state</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>

<li><a href="William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li>

<li><a href="John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li>

<li><a href="Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li>

<li><a href="Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li>

<li><a href="J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li>

<li><a href="Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li>

<li><a href="B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li>

<li><a href="Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li>

<li><a href="Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li>

<li><a href="Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li>

<li><a href="David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li>

<li><a href="Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li>

<li><a href="Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li>

<li><a href="Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li>

<li><a href="Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li>

<li><a href="Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li>

<li><a href="Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li>

<li><a href="Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li>

<li><a href="Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li>

<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_memory558" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Human_memory558" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li>

<li><a href="Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li>

<li><a href="Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li>

<li><a href="Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>"<a href="The_Magical_Number_Seven%2C_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li>

<li><a href="Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li>

<li><a href="Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li>

<li><a href="Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a>

<ul><li><a href="Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li>

<li><a href="Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li>

<li><a href="Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li>

<li><a href="Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li>

<li><a href="Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li>

<li><a href="Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li>

<li><a href="Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li>

<li><a href="Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Experiential_avoidance" title="Experiential avoidance">avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Repression_(psychoanalysis)" title="Repression (psychoanalysis)">repression</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">suppression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li>

<li><a href="Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

<li><a href="Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

<li><a href="Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li>

<li><a href="Elaborative_encoding" title="Elaborative encoding">encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Memorization" title="Memorization">memorization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_rehearsal" title="Memory rehearsal">rehearsal</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">repetition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_stress_on_memory" title="Effects of stress on memory">Effects of stress</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li>

<li><a href="Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a>

<ul><li><a href="World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li>

<li><a href="Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li>

<li><a href="Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li>

<li><a href="Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li>

<li><a href="Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Levels_of_Processing_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a>

<ul><li><a href="Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li>

<li><a href="Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li>

<li><a href="Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li>

<li><a href="James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li>

<li><a href="Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li>

<li><a href="Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li>

<li><a href="Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Dominic_O'Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li>

<li><a href="Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmos_Rossellius" title="Cosmos Rossellius">Cosmos Rossellius</a></li>

<li><a href="Andriy_Slyusarchuk" title="Andriy Slyusarchuk">Andriy Slyusarchuk</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="skin-invert-image noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-12" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Visual_memory&oldid=1300152989">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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